Integrated Land Degradation Assessment through Geographic Information Systems and Soil Biophysical Evaluation in Kalibeluk Village, Batang Regency

Farchan Mushaf Al Ramadhani; Muhammad Naoval Haris; Muhammad Akmal Faza

doi:10.20527/actasolum.v4i3.3758

Authors

Farchan Mushaf Al Ramadhani Department of Agrotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Pekalongan, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1013-3427
Muhammad Naoval Haris Department of Batik Craft, Faculty of Engineering, University of Pekalongan, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0009-0002-0446-1552
Muhammad Akmal Faza Department of Agrotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Pekalongan, Indonesia

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.20527/actasolum.v4i3.3758

Keywords:

Geographic information system, Land degradation, Land degradation status, Land management, Soil conservation

Abstract

Land degradation is a major environmental issue that reduces soil productivity and impairs ecological functions. Kalibeluk Village, Batang Regency, has diverse biophysical characteristics that may result in varying levels of land degradation. This study assessed land degradation potential and the corresponding degradation status in Kalibeluk Village, using GIS-based spatial analysis supported by field verification and laboratory assessment. Spatial analysis was conducted using soil type, slope gradient, rainfall, and land use parameters through an overlay technique to determine land degradation potential. Field verification and laboratory analyses were subsequently performed for each Land Mapping Unit (LMU) to evaluate land degradation status based on Government Regulation of the Republic of Indonesia Number 150 of 2000 and Regulation of the State Minister of Environment Number 07 of 2006. The results classified land degradation potential into three categories: low (71.481 ha; 39.8%), moderate (104.167 ha; 57.9%), and high (4.137 ha; 2.3%). Evaluation of land degradation status indicated that LMUs with low and moderate degradation potential were categorized as Slightly Degraded (R.I), whereas LMUs with high degradation potential were categorized as Moderately Degraded (R.II). The main limiting factors were soil fraction composition, water permeability, redox conditions, and surface rockiness. The findings demonstrate that GIS is an effective tool for identifying land degradation levels and supporting land management planning. Recommended rehabilitation measures include agroforestry, cover crops, terracing, the application of organic matter and soil amendments, and conservation drainage systems to improve soil quality and reduce land degradation risks sustainably.

References

AbdelRahman, M.A.E. 2023. An overview of land degradation, desertification and sustainable land management using GIS and remote sensing applications. Rendiconti Lincei. Scienze Fisiche e Naturali 34(3), 767–808. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12210-023-01155-3

Afiatan, A.S., Supriyanto, E.A., Al Ramadhani, F.M., Firmansyah, D. 2024. Analisis kesesuaian lahan tanaman kopi arabika berbasis sistem informasi geografis di Kecamatan Paninggaran Kabupaten Pekalongan. Jurnal Penelitian Inovatif 4(3), 1759–1770. https://doi.org/10.54082/jupin.682 (in Indonesia)

Al Ramadhani, F.M., Mufid, A., Afiatan, A.S., Supriyanto, E.A., Handriatni, A., Jazilah, S., Badrudin, U., Sajuri, Firmansyah, D. 2026. Kesesuaian lahan untuk tanaman kopi arabika menggunakan teknologi SIG di Kecamatan Lebakbarang Kabupaten Pekalongan. Technologica 5(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.55043/technologica.v5i1.328 (in Indonesia)

Ardyansyah, A.S., Purwadi, Mindari, W. 2025. Status kerusakan tanah pada berbagai penggunaan lahan di wilayah Kecamatan Ngantang, Kabupaten Malang. Agroteknika 8(3), 594–608. https://doi.org/10.55043/agroteknika.v8i3.578 (in Indonesia)

Basak, N., Rai, A.K., Sundha, P., Meena, R.L., Bedwal, S., Yadav, R.K., Sharma, P.C. 2022. Assessing soil quality for rehabilitation of salt-affected agroecosystem: A comprehensive review. Frontiers in Environmental Science 10, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.935785

Bhattacharyya, R., Bhatia, A., Ghosh, B.N., Santra, P., Mandal, D., Kumar, G., Singh, R.J., Madhu, M., Ghosh, A., Mandal, A.K., Paul, R., Datta, A., Sharma, P.C., Mandal, U.K., Jha, P., Anil, K.S., Lalitha, M., Kumar, M., Panwar, N.R., Sarkar, D., Patra, A.K., Kundu, S., Fullen, M.A., Poesen, J., Das, B.S., Reddy, N.N., Chaudhari, S.K. 2023. Soil degradation and mitigation in agricultural lands in the Indian Anthropocene. European Journal of Soil Science 74(4), e13388. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.13388

Blanchy, G., Bragoto, G., Di Bene, C., Jarvis, N., Larsbo, M., Meurer, K., Garré, S. 2023. Soil and crop management practices and the water regulation functions of soils: a qualitative synthesis of meta-analyses relevant to European agriculture. Soil 9(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-9-1-2023

Chalise, D., Kumar, L., Kristiansen, P. 2019. Land degradation by soil erosion in Nepal: A review. Soil Systems 3(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems3010012

Chaudhuri, S., Roy, M., McDonald, L.M., Emendack, Y. 2023. Land degradation–desertification in relation to farming practices in India: An overview of current practices and agro-policy perspectives. Sustainability 15(8), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15086383

Dakeso, T.Y. 2024. The status of land degradation induced by soil erosion and management options in Duna District, Hadiya Zone, Central Ethiopia. Hydrology 12(4), 85–91. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.hyd.20241204.12

Daryanto, S., Fu, B., Wang, L., Jacinthe, P.A., Zhao, W. 2018. Quantitative synthesis on the ecosystem services of cover crops. Earth-Science Reviews 185, 357–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.06.013

Das, A.K., Lee, D.S., Woo, Y.J., Sultana, S., Mahmud, A., Yun, B.W. 2025. The impact of flooding on soil microbial communities and their functions: A review. Stresses 5(2), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.3390/stresses5020030

Dorau, K., Uteau, D., Hövels, M.P., Peth, S., Mansfeldt, T. 2022. Soil aeration and redox potential as function of pore connectivity unravelled by X-ray microtomography imaging. European Journal of Soil Science 73(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.13165

Ebido, N.E., Awaogu, C.E., Akubue, J.C., Ozongwu, O.V., Unagwu, B.O., Obalum, S.E., Igwe, C.A. 2025. Application of rice-husk biochar to coarse-textured Ultisols and the effects on soil fertility indicators at different amendment-to-sampling intervals. Journal of Tropical Soils 30(2), 69–83. https://doi.org/10.5400/jts.2025.v30i2.69-83

Fadl, M.E., Zekari, M., Labad, R., Faqeih, K.Y., El-Fadl, D.M.A., Zahra, W.R., Mansour, M.M.A., Rebouh, N.Y., Kucher, D.E., Poddubsky, A., Elnagar, A.S., Ali, E.A. 2025. Integrating RUSLE, AHP, GIS, and cloud-based geospatial analysis for soil erosion assessment under mediterranean conditions. Scientific Reports 15, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-22503-3

Fahad, S., Chavan, S.B., Chichaghare, A.R., Uthappa, A.R., Kumar, M., Kakade, V., Pradhan, A., Jinger, D., Rawale, G., Yadav, D.K., Kumar, V., Farooq, T.H., Ali, B., Sawant, A.V., Saud, S., Chen, S., Poczai, P. 2022. Agroforestry systems for soil health improvement and maintenance. Sustainability 14(22), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142214877

Filchev, L., Kolev, V. 2021. Assessing of soil erosion risk through geoinformation sciences and remote sensing–A review. In: P.K. Rai, P. Singh, V.N. Mishra (Eds.), Recent Technologies for Disaster Management and Risk Reduction. Springer, pp. 377–430. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76116-5_21

Gao, M., Hu, W., Zhang, X., Li, M. 2025. Using network analysis to determine the soil quality indexes for land degradation. Plant and Soil 509, 779–794. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-024-06896-0

Girma, R., Moges, A., Fürst, C. 2023. Integrated modeling of land degradation dynamics and insights on the possible future management alternatives in the Gidabo River Basin, Ethiopian Rift Valley. Land 12(9), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12091809

Government Regulation of the Republic of Indonesia. 2000. Number 150 Concerning Soil Damage Control for Biomass Production. Retrieved form https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Details/54039/pp-no-150-tahun-2000 (in Indonesia)

Haregeweyn, N., Tsunekawa, A., Tsubo, M., Fenta, A.A., Ebabu, K., Vanmaercke, M., Borrelli, P., Panagos, P., Berihun, M.L., Langendoen, E.J., Nigussie, Z., Setargie, T.A., Maurice, B.N., Minichil, T., Elias, A., Sun, J., Poesen, J. 2023. Progress and challenges in sustainable land management initiatives: A global review. Science of the Total Environment 858, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160027

He, F., Mohamadzadeh, N., Sadeghnejad, M., Ingram, B., Ostovari, Y. 2023. Fractal features of soil particles as an index of land degradation under different land-use patterns and slope-aspects. Land 12(3), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12030615

Jarvis, N., Coucheney, E., Lewan, E., Klöffel, T., Meurer, K.H.E., Keller, T., Larsbo, M. 2024. Interactions between soil structure dynamics, hydrological processes, and organic matter cycling: A new soil-crop model. European Journal of Soil Science 75(2), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.13455

Kartini, N.L., Saifulloh, M., Trigunasih, N.M., Narka, I.W. 2023. Assessment of soil degradation based on soil properties and spatial analysis in dryland farming. Journal of Ecological Engineering 24(4), 368–375. https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/161080

Kgaphola, M.J., Ramoelo, A., Odindi, J., Mwenge Kahinda, J.M., Seetal, A.R., Musvoto, C. 2023. Impact of land use and land cover change on land degradation in rural semi-arid South Africa: case of the Greater Sekhukhune District Municipality. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 195, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-11104-0

Kochanek, A., Generowicz, A., Zacłona, T. 2025. The role of geographic information systems in environmental management and the development of renewable energy sources—A review approach. Energies 18(17), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18174740

Kunberger, J.M., Colón, M.R., Long, A.M. 2025. Using Google Earth Engine to develop interactive mapping tools for conservation planning. Journal for Nature Conservation 87, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2025.126997

Lestariningsih, I.D., Widianto, Agustina, C., Sudarto, Kurniawan, S. 2018. Relationship between land degradation, biophysical and social factors in Lekso Watershed, East Java, Indonesia. Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 5(3), 1283–1291. https://doi.org/10.15243/jdmlm.2018.053.1283

Li, T., Zhang, G., Li, Q., Song, L., He, B., Zhang, H., Xi, P. 2024. Response of runoff N and P concentrations, losses, and stoichiometry to rainfall amount category, multisource fertilization, and straw return in sloping croplands. Journal of Hydrology 640, 131693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2024.131693

Liu, Y., Deng, Z., Wang, X. 2021. The effects of rainfall, soil type and slope on the processes and mechanisms of rainfall-induced shallow landslides. Applied Sciences 11(24), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/app112411652

Mason, E., Bispo, A., Matt, M., Helming, K., Rodriguez, E., Lansac, R., Carrasco, V., Hashar, M.R., Verdonk, L., Prokop, G., Wall, D., Francis, N., Laszlo, P., Löbmann, M.T. 2023. Sustainable soil and land management: A systems-oriented overview of scientific literature. Frontiers in Soil Science 3, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoil.2023.1268037

Matisic, M., Dugan, I., Bogunovic, I. 2024. Challenges in sustainable agriculture—The role of organic amendments. Agriculture 14(4), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14040643

Morandage, S., Vanderborght, J., Zörner, M., Cai, G., Leitner, D., Vereecken, H., Schnepf, A. 2021. Root architecture development in stony soils. Vadose Zone Journal 20(4), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1002/vzj2.20133

Nofrizal, Fauzan, Hakam, A., Istijono, B., Aprisal. 2025. Analysis of the effect of rainfall intensity and slope steepness on landslide disaster. Civil and Environmental Engineering 21(2), 959–973. https://doi.org/10.2478/cee-2025-0073

Nugroho, B.A., Dhonanto, D., Kurniadinata, O.F., Pujowati, P. 2026. Integrating geopedology and land evaluation to diagnose soil constraints for maize in tropical riparian landscapes. Acta Solum 4(2), 110–120. https://doi.org/10.20527/actasolum.v4i2.3608

Nurhutami, S.R., Sakti, M.B.G., Sa’diyah, Z.F. 2025. Assessing land-use driven soil degradation potential and biomass production dynamics in the Corogrojong Sub Sub-Watershed, Malang, Indonesia. Acta Solum 4(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.20527/actasolum.v4i1.3527

Putri, A., Iskandar, I., Oktariani, P., Limin, A. 2023. Effect of coal ash enriched compost on soil chemical properties of Ultisols. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1266, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1266/1/012076

Qi, C., Peng, H., Xu, M., Li, Z., Wang, Y., Li, Q., Cui, B., Wang, B., Wang, Z., Zhu, J., Qin, J., Zhao, L. 2025. Comprehensive assessment of land degradation in the Sanjiangyuan region based on multi-source indicators. Scientific Reports 15, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-25277-w

Raharjo, S., Widiatmaka, W., Sudadi, U. 2015. Analisis kesesuaian lahan untuk komoditas sayuran unggulan di Kabupaten Batang. Jurnal Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Alam dan Lingkungan 5(1), 33–41. https://doi.org/10.19081/jpsl.2015.5.2.33 (in Indonesia)

Rahman, F.A., Wulan, V.N.S., Suryawati, S., Yuhardi, E., Supriyadi, S. 2025. Drought analysis using remote sensing in Bojonegoro. Acta Solum 4(1), 24–30. https://doi.org/10.20527/actasolum.v4i1.3536

Regulation of the State Minister of Environment. 2006. Number 07 Concerning Procedures for Measuring Standard Criteria of Soil Damage for Biomass Production. Retrieved from https://perpustakaan.kemenlh.go.id/pustaka/home/index.php?page=catalog&content_type=55&viewid=650 (in Indonesia)

Riry, R.B., Tetelepta, E.G. 2023. Karakteristik tanah Inceptisol di Negeri Latuhalat, Kota Ambon. Geoforum 2(2), 60–70. https://doi.org/10.30598/geoforumvol2iss2pp60-70

Riva, M.J., Daliakopoulos, I.N., Eckert, S., Hodel, E., Liniger, H. 2017. Assessment of land degradation in Mediterranean forests and grazing lands using a landscape unit approach and the normalized difference vegetation index. Applied Geography 86, 8–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2017.06.017

Romero, F., Labouyrie, M., Orgiazzi, A., Ballabio, C., Panagos, P., Jones, A., Tedersoo, L., Bahram, M., Eisenhauer, N., Sünnemann, M., Guerra, C.A., Tao, D., Rog, I., Jiao, S., Mocali, S., Rillig, M.C., Lehmann, A., Delgado-Baquerizo, M., van der Heijden, M.G.A. 2025. The soil microbiome as an indicator of ecosystem multifunctionality in European soils. Nature Communications 17, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-67353-9

Saricaoglu, S., Dengiz, O., Isik, K. 2021. Assessment of biogeochemical–mineralogical characteristic and weathering indices of soils developed on basaltic parent material and toposequence under subhumid ecosystem. Geomicrobiology Journal 38(5), 451–465. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490451.2021.1879971

Schlüter, S., Lucas, M., Grosz, B., Ippisch, O., Zawallich, J., He, H., Dechow, R., Kraus, D., Blagodatsky, S., Senbayram, M., Kravchenko, A., Vogel, H.J., Well, R. 2025. The anaerobic soil volume as a controlling factor of denitrification: A review. Biology and Fertility of Soils 61(3), 343–365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-024-01819-8

Solomon, N., Birhane, E., Tilahun, M., Schauer, M., Gebremedhin, M.A., Gebremariam, F.T., Gidey, T., Newete, S.W. 2024. Revitalizing Ethiopia’s highland soil degradation: a comprehensive review on land degradation and effective management interventions. Discover Sustainability 5, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-024-00282-7

Symeonakis, E. 2022. Land degradation assessment with Earth observation. Remote Sensing 14(8), 10–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14081776

Talib, N., Maulud, K.A.A., Mohd, F.A., Taib-Taib, A.M., Abdullah, M.A. 2026. Assessing the impact of topography on soil erosion in agricultural areas using UAV and GIS-based analysis. International Journal of Geoinformatics 22(1), 47–55. https://doi.org/10.52939/ijg.v22i1.4719

Taye, G., Teklesilassie, T., Teka, D., Kassa, H. 2023. Assessment of soil erosion hazard and its relation to land use land cover changes: Case study from alage watershed, central Rift Valley of Ethiopia. Heliyon 9(8), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18648

Țopa, D.C., Căpșună, S., Calistru, A.E., Ailincăi, C. 2025. Sustainable practices for enhancing soil health and crop quality in modern agriculture: A review. Agriculture 15(9), 1–38. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15090998

Viana, C.M., Freire, D., Abrantes, P., Rocha, J., Pereira, P. 2022. Agricultural land systems importance for supporting food security and sustainable development goals: A systematic review. Science of the Total Environment 806, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150718

Workie, M.D., Teku, D. 2025. Assessing soil erosion hotspots and land degradation extent in Beshilo Watershed, Northeastern Ethiopia: Integrating geospatial and field survey techniques, for sustainable land management. Frontiers in Environmental Science 13, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2025.1548881